In Western Syria Mongols Again Defeated by Egyptian Mamluks

Mongol invasions of the Levant (1260-1323)

Mongol invasions of the Levant Mamluk-Ilkhanid War
1260 Mongol offensives in the Levant
Date 1260–1323 Location Levant and Anatolia Issue Mongols conquer function of the Abbasid Caliphate and Ayyubid Sultanate merely fail to conquer the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate The Treaty of Aleppo
Belligerents
Ilkhanate of the Mongol Empire Cilician Armenia Kingdom of Georgia Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Antioch-Tripoli Yuan Empire Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire (1259–1264) Knights Templar Knights Hospitaller	Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate Ayyubid remnants Nizari Ismailis of Syria Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire (after 1264) Karamanid rebels Abbasids
Commanders and leaders
Kitbuqa † Baidar Samgar Abagha Möngke-Temur Ghazan Kutluqshah Oljeitu Hethum of Armenia Leo II of Armenia Demetrius II of Georgia Bohemond VI of Antioch Jacques de Molay	Qutuz Baibars Salar Baibars II Al-Nasir Muhammad Qalawun Mehmet of Karaman An-Nasir Yusuf Al-Kamil Muhammad Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad al-Mustansir † Al-Musta'sim Sulaiman Shah
Strength
Unknown	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown (heavier than the Mamluks)	Unknown (heavy)

Starting in the 1240s, the Mongols made repeated invasions of Syrian arab republic or attempts thereof. Near failed, but they did accept some success in 1260 and 1300, capturing Aleppo and Damascus and destroying the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were forced to retreat within months each time past other forces in the area, primarily the Egyptian Mamluks. Since 1260, information technology had been described as the Mamluk-Ilkhanid State of war.^[one]

Showtime invasion [edit]

During the governorship of Bachu in Persia, the Mongolian army under Yisaur attacked Syria in 1244. The reasons for the attack are unclear, only it may accept been in retaliation for the Syrian participation on the Seljuk side in the Battle of Köse Dağ.^[2] In the autumn 1244, Yisaur concentrated the Mongol forces in the upper Tigris valley where they subjugated the Kurdish province of Akhlat. Moving across, the Mongolian army encountered no resistance and ravaged the area en route. The fortified cities were untaken in his accelerate considering Yisaur was non prepared for siege assault. Passing through the territory of the city of Urfa, he crossed the Euphrates.

He marched straight to Aleppo simply went as far as Hailan before the climate impaired his regular army'south movements. Yisaur sent envoys to Aleppo to demand submission of tribute, which Malik agreed to pay. The same demand were sent to Bohemond of Antioch who chose non to fight them instead of defiance.^[three]

Yisaur withdrew his strength back up the Euphrates valley and received the submission of Malatia. In Arab republic of egypt, Sultan as-Salih Ayyub decided to acquiesce to the results and made no effort to raise an regular army to run into the Mongols who had invaded his dominions in Syrian arab republic.

In 1251, as an expediency to purchase peace, Sultan an-Nasir Yusuf sent his representatives to Mongolia for the election of Möngke and agreed to make Syria a vassal country of the Mongol Empire.

1260 invasion [edit]

In 1255, Hulagu sought to further aggrandize the Empire into the Center East under orders from his older brother, the Great Khan Möngke. Hulagu's forces subjugated multiple peoples along the fashion, most notably the middle of the Islamic Empire, Baghdad, which was completely sacked in 1258, destroying the Abbasid Caliphate. From there, the Mongol forces proceeded into Syria.

In 1260, Egypt was nether the control of the Bahri Mamluks, while almost of the Levant (aside from the Crusader states) was even so under the control of Ayyubid princes. The Mongols, for their function, had combined their forces with that of their Christian vassals in the region, the Georgians; the ground forces of Cilician Armenia under Hethum I, Male monarch of Armenia; and the Franks of Bohemond 6 of Antioch. In what is described by the 20th-century historians René Grousset and Lev Gumilev as the "xanthous crusade" (Croisade Jaune),^{[four] [5]} the combined forces captured the city of Aleppo in Jan, and then on March i, 1260, nether the Mongol Christian general Kitbuqa, took Damascus. The last Ayyubid king, An-Nasir Yusuf, was captured past the Mongols about Gaza in 1260. Still, Hulagu promised him that he would appoint An-Nasir Yusuf as his viceroy in Syria.^[6] With the Islamic power heart of Baghdad and Syria gone, the heart of Islamic power transferred to the Mamluks in Cairo.

Hulagu'south intention at that point was to continue south through Palestine to Egypt, to appoint the Mamluks. However, Möngke died in belatedly 1259, requiring Hulagu to return to Karakorum to engage in the councils on who the side by side Great Khan would be. Hulagu departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving just nearly ten,000 Mongol horsemen in Syria under Kitbuqa. Some of Kitbuqa's forces engaged in raids southwards towards Arab republic of egypt, reaching as far as Gaza, where a Mongol garrison was established with one,000 troops.

The Mamluks took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol forces, and, negotiating a passive alliance with the remnants of the Crusader forces in Acre, advanced northwards to appoint the Mongols at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut in September 1260. The Mamluks accomplished a decisive victory, Kitbuqa was executed, and the battle established a high-h2o mark for the Mongol conquests. In previous defeats, the Mongols had always returned later to re-take the territory, merely they were never able to avenge the loss at Ayn Jalut. The edge of the Mongol Ilkhanate remained at the Tigris River for the elapsing of Hulagu's dynasty. Sultan An-Nasir and his brother were executed after Hulagu heard the news of the defeat of Kitbuqa at Ain Jalut.

In Dec 1260, Hulagu sent vi,000 troops back into Syria, but they were defeated at the Offset Boxing of Homs.

Caliphate of Cairo and the rebellion in Mosul [edit]

Afterwards the fall of Baghdad in 1258, a few of Abbasid princes fled to Syria and Egypt. There, the Abbasids still maintained a feeble bear witness of authority, confined to religious matters, nether the Mamluks. But their authority was limited to existence figureheads. Get-go of the Caliphs in Cairo, Al-Mustansir Ii was dispatched to Mesopotamia past Baibars. The Caliph was reinforced with Syrian auxiliaries and the Bedouins. However, he was totally crushed by the Mongol vanguard in S Iraq in 1262. The Mongol protectorate and ruler of Mosul, Badr al-Din's sons sided with the Mamluks and rebelled against the rule of Hulagu. This led to the devastation of the city state and the Mongols finally suppressed the rebellion in 1265.

1271 invasion [edit]

The Mamluks under Baibars (yellowish) fought off the Franks and the Mongols during the Ninth Crusade.

The 2d Mongol invasion of Syria took place in Oct 1271, when x,000 Mongols led past general Samagar and Seljuk auxiliaries moved southwards from Rûm and captured Aleppo; however they retreated back beyond the Euphrates when the Mamluk leader Baibars marched on them from Egypt.^[7]

Area alliances [edit]

In the second half of the 13th century, civil state of war had erupted in the Mongol Empire. In the Middle E, this manifested as conflict between the Mongols of the Aureate Horde, and the Mongols of the Ilkhanate, who battled over claims on Georgia and Azerbaijan. Both the Gilt Horde and the Ilkhanate sought to strengthen their position via trade agreements or other types of alliances with other powers in the area. In 1261, Berke of the Gilded Horde centrolineal with the Mamluk Sultan Baibars,^{[viii] [9] [10] [11] [12]} confronting their common enemy the Ilkhanate. This alliance was both strategic, and too in terms of trade exchanges, as the Egyptians had been the Golden Horde's long-standing merchandise partner and ally in the Mediterranean.^[thirteen]

For their part, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate sought (unsuccessfully) an alliance with the Franks of Europe,^[14] but did form a Byzantine-Mongol alliance with the Christian Byzantine Empire.

Conflict between the Golden Horde and the Il-Khans [edit]

The two Western Mongol realms, the Golden Horde and the Il-Khanate, were already in open war. The roots of the conflict were related to battles between the descendants of Genghis Khan over the control of the Empire. The firsthand successor to Genghis Khan was his son Ögedei, but the leadership was then taken by force by the descendants of Genghis' son Tolui. During the reign of Kublai Khan (son of Genghis' son Tolui), descendants of Genghis's other sons Ögedei, Chagatai, and Jochi sought to oppose the rule of Kublai. The Ilkhanate had been founded by Hulagu, another of Tolui'south sons, who was therefore loyal to Kublai. The Golden Horde had been founded by Genghis' son Jochi, post-obit the Mongol invasion of Central Asia. Genghis had designated several of the territories south of the Caucasus to Jochi, specifically Georgia, and the Seljukid Sultanate.^[15] Hulagu, with the backing of his brother the Great Khan Kublai, invaded and captured these territories in 1256, even installing his capital in the center of the disputed territories, at Maragha. Berke, the leader of the Gilded Horde, could not tolerate this infringement of his inheritance,^[fifteen] and a drawn-out disharmonize between the two Mongol realms connected well into the 14th century.^[16]

Ethnic and religious affinities [edit]

Various affinities led to a more or less natural alliance betwixt the Mongols of the Golden Horde and the Mamluks of Egypt. The Mamluks' Empire had been founded by quondam slaves bought from the Kipchack territory of southern Russian federation, which was now an important segment of the Mongol Aureate Horde. There were therefore already cultural affinities between large segments of the Mongol Horde and the ruling aristocracy of Egypt.^[17] Berke's Turkic subjects also spoke the same Turkic language equally the Mamluks.^[18] Farther, the Gold Horde, under Berke's leadership, was the start of the Mongol states to convert to Islam,^[16] which lent to solidarity with the Islamic realms to the south.^[19] On the other hand, the Il-Khan rulers were highly favourable to Christianity, and did not commit to Islam until 1295, when the Ilkhan Ghazan, a descendant of Tolui, formerly converted when he took the throne.^[20] Even afterward his conversion though, he connected to battle the Mamluks for control of Syria, while simultaneously seeking an alliance with Christian Europe.

Mamluk-Golden Horde rapprochement [edit]

The Gold Horde entered into a defensive alliance with the Mamluks in Arab republic of egypt, with the understanding existence that each realm would intervene if the other was attacked by the Ilkhanate.^{[21] [22]} This required the Il-khan to devote forces to both his northern and southern borders, and never use all forces in a unmarried battle. On multiple occasions, the forces of the Ilkhanate would outset a campaign towards Syria in the south, simply to exist forced to recall troops within a few months because of attacks from the Golden Horde in the north.^[23]

1280–81 invasion [edit]

The third major invasion took identify in 1280–81 under Abaqa Khan. Having crossed the Euphrates and captured Aleppo in 1280,^[24] the Mongols of the Ilkhanate moved as far southward equally Homs with twoscore,000 men before they were beaten back to the Euphrates river at the Second Boxing of Homs in October 1281.

The Il-khan Tekuder ( r. 1282–1284) was friendly to Islam, and sent a letter to the Mamluk sultan to broach the subject field of peace, just Tekuder'south envoy was arrested by the Mamluks. Tekuder's conversion to Islam and attempts to make peace with the Mamluks were not popular with the other nobles of the Ilkhanate. When Tekuder's blood brother Arghun challenged him for the throne, Tekuder sought assistance in vain from the Mamluks, but was executed. Arghun ( r. 1284–1291) took power, and as directed by the Great Khan Kublai ( r. 1260–1294) connected Mongol attempts to conquer Syria.

The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War: 1299–1303 [edit]

In late 1299, the Mongol Ilkhan Mahmud Ghazan, son of Arghun, took his army and crossed the Euphrates river to again invade Syria. They continued south until they were slightly n of Homs,^[25] and successfully took Aleppo. There, Ghazan was joined by forces from his vassal land of Cilician Armenia.^[26]

The Mamluk relief force sent from Damascus met the Mongol army northeast of Homs, at the Boxing of Wadi al-Khazandar (sometimes chosen the Battle of Homs) in December 1299. The Mongols had some 60,000 troops, with nearly twoscore,000 Georgian and Armenian auxiliaries, and routed the Egyptian Mamluks with their much smaller force of 20,000–30,000 troops. The Mamluks retreated, and were harassed by Maronite and Druze bowmen who wanted independence from the Mamluks. I grouping of Mongols too divide off from Ghazan'southward ground forces, and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops equally far as Gaza,^[27] pushing them back to Arab republic of egypt.

1300–1301 operations from Ruad and Mongol offensives under Ghazan's general Kutluka.

The bulk of Ghazan's forces then proceeded onward towards Damascus. Some of the populace of Damascus upon hearing of the Mongol approach had fled to Egypt, and the governor of the city, Arjawash, had entrenched himself deep inside the Citadel of Damascus. The Mongols besieged the metropolis for ten days, which surrendered between December 30, 1299, and January vi, 1300, though its Citadel resisted.^{[28] [29]} Ghazan and then withdrew most of his forces in February, promising to return in the winter of 1300–1301 to set on Egypt.^[30] The reason for the withdrawal is believed to exist either the Chagatai Mongols invading their eastern borders, or the demand to retreat to areas where there was improve grazing room for the horses. The Mamluks had learned that the availability of pastures was important to the Mongols, and so had taken to burning pastureland then as to prevent the rapid advance of the Mongol cavalry. After Ghazan'southward main force withdrew, only virtually 10,000 horsemen remained in Syria, nether the Mongol full general Mulay.

With the retreat of the majority of forces from both sides, for most three months, until the Mamluks returned in May 1300, Mulay'south forces were in technical control over Syria,^[31] and some Mongols engaged in raids as far southward as Jerusalem and Gaza.^{[32] [33] [34] [35]} Still, when the Mamluks returned from Egypt, the remaining Mongols retreated with niggling resistance.

Also in early 1300, two Frankish rulers, Guy d'Ibelin and Jean II de Giblet, had moved in with their troops from Cyprus in response to Ghazan's earlier call. They had established a base in the castle of Nephin in the lordship of Gibelet (Byblos) on the Syrian declension with the intention of joining him, but Ghazan was already gone.^{[36] [37]} They likewise started to besiege the new city of Tripoli, simply in vain,^[38] and so returned to Cyprus.

In late 1300, Ghazan's forces had dealt with the lark of the Chagatai invasion on their northern border, and once once more turned their attending to Syria. They crossed the Euphrates river betwixt December fourteen, 1300 and Nov one, 1301. Again, the Mamluk army in Syria withdrew without engaging in combat, which resulted in a panic in Damascus when they heard of the new threat from the Mongols. The Syrians of Hamat were able to achieve a small victory against the Mongols at a battle near Aleppo by the post of Hamat. This created order in Damascus, enough for the governor to transport for a larger relief force from Egypt. Still, the Mongols had already left Syria due to a decease in Ghazan Khan's family unit.^{[ citation needed ]}

Dominion of Bahri Mamluks (cherry-red)

The Ilkhanate returned to Syria in 1303, travelling unopposed downwardly the Levant until they reached Damascus. Yet, most Damascus they were one time again soundly defeated past the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in April 1303.

Final Phase: 1312 [edit]

In 1312, the new khan of the Ilkhanate, Öljaitü, pursued an aggressive policy to consolidate his rule, subduing the Caspian Province of Gilan and destroying the autonomous principality of Herat. Encouraged by the defection of some Syrian emirs, Öljaitü decided to cross the Euphrates in 1312 to attack the Mamluk Sultanate. He laid siege to the heavily fortified town of Rahbat. After almost a month of fighting in which they suffered heavy casualties, the Mongols ultimately failed to have the fortified identify and withdrew. This was to be the last major Mongol incursion into the Levant.^{[39] [40]}

Treaty of Aleppo [edit]

The Mongol earth, ca. 1300. The gray area is the afterward Timurid empire.

Following the defeat of the Mongol ruler Ghazan and the progressive conversion of the Il-Khanate to Islam, the Mongols finally were amenable to ceasing hostilities. The first contacts to establish a treaty of peace were communicated via the slave trader al-Majd al-Sallami. After the initial communications, more formal letters and embassies were exchanged.^[41] Under the Ilkhanate ruler Abu Sa'id, who was following the communication of his custodian Chupan, the treaty with the Mamluks was ratified in 1322/1323. Indeed, the Mongols never fabricated peace with the Muslims until they themselves became Muslims. A state of affairs analogous to the pagan Viking conquest of Normandy and England, where Viking Scandinavians never truly made peace with the Christian Kingdoms until they themselves became Christian.

Following the treaty and a catamenia of peace, the Il-Khanate further disintegrated, and finer disappeared during the 14th century.^[41]

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Hemmings, Jay (2019-02-28). "When The Egyptian Mamluks Crushed The Formerly Unstoppable Mongol Army". WAR HISTORY ONLINE . Retrieved 2022-02-08 .
2. ^ D. South. Benson The Mongol campaigns in Asia, p.179
3. ^ Jeremiah Curtin The Mongols: A history, p.178
4. ^ Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1958). History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453. Academy of Wisconsin Press. p. 600. ISBN0299809269.
5. ^ Gumilev, Lev Nikolaevich (1987). Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 194. ISBN0521322146.
6. ^ The Cambridge History of Arab republic of egypt: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517, p.255
7. ^ Runciman 1987, pp. 336–337.
8. ^ Ryley-Smith in Atlas of the Crusades, p.112 (French Edition): "When the Gold Horde allied with the Mamluks, the Ilkhanate looked towards an brotherhood with the Christians"
9. ^ "The alliance which Berke had created between the Mongols and the Mamluks against the Ilkhanate remained constant", Morgan, p.144
10. ^ "The Mongols of Iran were all but encircled by a concatenation of alliances linking the Mamluks to the Gilded Horde, and this power to Kaidu", Setton, p.529
11. ^ "The friendship between Egypt and the Golden Horde, which would last until the conclusion of peace betwixt the Mamluks and the Il-Khan in 1320" The New Cambridge Medieval History, folio 710, by David Abulafia - 1999
12. ^ "In order to fight their mutual enemy [the Ilkhanate], the Kipchack Mongols and the Mamluks entered into an alliance." Luisetto, p.157
13. ^ Mantran, Robert (Fossier, Robert, ed.) "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250-1520, p. 298
14. ^ Morgan, Mongols and the Westward
15. ^ ^{a b} Luisetto, p.155
16. ^ ^{a b} The Mongols, David Morgan, p.144
17. ^ "It is a fact of crucial importance that the Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongols of the Gilt Horde were natural allies (…) merely because the ruling grade of Egypt and an important and influential segment of the Golden Horde belonged in fact to the same ethnic group." A History of the Crusades, Kenneth Meyer Setton, p.527
18. ^ Setton, p.527
19. ^ Past ultimately becoming Muslims, the Mongols of the Golden Horde conspicuously identified themselves with their Turkish subjects and with the people to the south, rather than with the Christian Russians to the North" Morgan, p.128
20. ^ "On the contrary, Hulagu, accompanied past Dokuz Khatun greatly favoured Christianity", Luisetto, p.155-156
21. ^ "In order to fight their common enemy [the Ilkhanate], the Kipchack Mongols and the Mamluks entered into an alliance. This was based on a defensive rather than an offensive policy: if one of their territories was attacked, the second would fight for the other, on his own forepart, in social club to create a diversion or weaken enough Western farsi troops then that their activeness would be stopped." Luisetto, p.157
22. ^ "Before invading Syria in 1299, Ghazan was forced to send troops in the Caucasus, in lodge to reinforce his Christian-Mongol troops. These were and then many soldiers who could not fight in Palestine.", Luisetto, p.156
23. ^ Luisetto, p.158
24. ^ Burns 2016, p. 179.
25. ^ Demurger, p.143
26. ^ Demurger, p.142 (French edition) "He was soon joined by King Hethum, whose forces seem to take included Hospitallers and Templars from the kingdom of Armenia, who participate to the residuum of the campaign."
27. ^ Demurger, p.142 "The Mongols pursued the retreating troops towards the south, but stopped at the level of Gaza"
28. ^ Demurger 142-143
29. ^ Runciman, p.439
30. ^ Demurger, p.146
31. ^ Demurger (p.146, French edition): "After the Mamluk forces retreated south to Egypt, the principal Mongol forces retreated n in February, Ghazan leaving his general Mulay to dominion in Syrian arab republic".
32. ^ "Meanwhile the Mongol and Armenian troops raided the country as far south every bit Gaza." Schein, 1979, p. 810
33. ^ Amitai, "Mongol Raids into Palestine (Advertisement 1260 and 1300)"
34. ^ "Arab historians however, like Moufazzal Ibn Abil Fazzail, an-Nuwairi and Makrizi, report that the Mongols raided the state as far as Jerusalem and Gaza"— Sylvia Schein, p.810
35. ^ The Arab historian Yahia Michaud, in the 2002 volume Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I-XVI, Chap XI, describes that at that place were some firsthand accounts at the time, of forays of the Mongols into Palestine, and quotes ii ancient Arab sources stating that Jerusalem was 1 of the cities that was invaded by the Mongols
36. ^ Demurger, p.144
37. ^ "After Ghazan had left, some Christians from Cyprus arrived in Gibelet and Nefin, led past Guy, Count of Jaffa, and Jean d'Antioche [Jean Two de Giblet] with their knights, and from there proceeded to go to Armenia where the military camp of the Tatars was. But Ghazan was gone, then they had to return."|Le Templier de Tyr, 614. Le Templier de Tyr, 614: "Et apres que Cazan fu partis aucuns crestiens de Chipre estoient ales a Giblet et a Nefin et en seles terres de seles marines les quels vous nomeray: Guy conte de Jaffe et messire Johan dantioche et lor chevaliers; et de la cuyderent aler en Ermenie quy estoit a lost des Tatars. Cazan sen estoit retornes: il se mist a revenir"
38. ^ Jean Richard, p.481
39. ^ J.J. Saunders, "History of the Mongol Conquests," page 144
40. ^ Josef Due west. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization," page 573
41. ^ ^{a b} Meri, p.541

Sources [edit]

• Abulafia, David. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-36291-1.
• Amitai, Reuven (1987). "Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)". Journal of the Purple Asiatic Society: 236–255.
• Burns, Ross (2016). Aleppo, A History. Routledge. ISBN9780415737210.
• Grousset, René (1935). Histoire des Croisades 3, 1188-1291 (in French). Editions Perrin. ISBN2-262-02569-10.
• Demurger, Alain (2007). Jacques de Molay (in French). Editions Payot&Rivages. ISBN978-2-228-90235-9.
• Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the W: 1221-1410. Longman. ISBN978-0-582-36896-5.
• Lebédel, Claude (2006). Les Croisades, origines et conséquences (in French). Editions Ouest-France. ISBN2-7373-4136-1.
• Luisetto, Frédéric (2007) (2007). Arméniens & autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole (in French). Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner Southward.A. ISBN9782705337919.
• Maalouf, Amin (1984). The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN0-8052-0898-iv.
• Maalouf, Amin (1983). Les croisades vues par les Arabes. JC Lattes.
• Michaud, Yahia (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies) (2002). Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I-XVI (PDF) (in French). "Le Musulman", Oxford-Le Chebec.
• Morgan, David (2007). The Mongols (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-3539-nine.
• Richard, Jean (1996). Histoire des Croisades. Fayard. ISBN2-213-59787-one.
• Runciman, Steven (1987) [1952-1954]. A history of the Crusades iii. Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-fourteen-013705-7.
• Schein, Sylvia (October 1979). "Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Not-Event". The English Historical Review. 94 (373): 805–819. doi:10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805. ISSN 0013-8266. JSTOR 565554.

External links [edit]

• Adh-Dhababi (translated past Joseph Somogyi) (1948). "Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301". Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1.

bettsstong1949.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant

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